The subject selected for the Adam's Prize of 1910 was Some investigation connected with the physical constitution or motion of the earth. A number of questions on which it is desirable to obtain further knowledge were mentioned; among them were The stresses in continents and mountains, when the supposition of the existence of the isostatic layer is accepted; the propagation of seismic waves. At the time when this announcement was made, March 1909, I had found that modification of previous theories concerning the effects produced by compressibility in a body of planetary dimensions which forms the basis of the investigations in Chapters VII - X of this Essay, and had sketched a programme of work dealing with the special subject cited above from the announcement. The investigations concerning the effects of the earths rotation on earth tides did not arise as part of the original programme, but were undertaken after a discussion of the subject at the Winnipeg Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.As the analytical investigations in the Essay are rather intricate, it has been thought advisable to prefix an Abstract, stating the special hypotheses and limitations in accordance with which the various problems are discussed, and describing the conclusions which have been reached.My best thanks are due to the authorities of the Cambridge University Press for the readiness with which they have met all my wishes in regard to the printing.
In the following work I have not attempted to mix Narrative and Science, believing that the mind once interested in the one, cannot with satisfaction pass abruptly to the other. The book is therefore divided into Two Parts: the first chiefly narrative, and the second chiefly scientific.In Part I. I have sought to convey some notion of the life of an Alpine explorer, and of the means by which his knowledge is acquired. In Part II. an attempt is made to classify such knowledge, and to refer the observed phenomena to their physical causes.The Second Part of the work is written with a desire to interest intelligent persons who may not possess any special scientific culture. For their sakes I have dwelt more fully on principles than I should have done in presence of a purely scientific audience. The brief sketch of the nature of Light and Heat, with which Part II. is commenced, will not, I trust, prove uninteresting to the reader for whom it is more especially designed.
Chapter II develops a theory of the type of partial differential equations which occur in treatable problems of compressible flow; An important point is the emphasis on what the authors call simple waves, representing motion in domains adjacent to domains of constant state.
Many students of Physics or Engineering, who from want neither off mathematical aptitude, or of sufficient training in the methods of analytical solid geometry, are unable to follow the works of mathematical writers on Rigid Dynamics, must have felt disappointed, after mastering so much of the Dynamics of a Particle as is given in the excellent and widely-used text-books of Loney, or Garnett, or Lock, to find that they have been obliged, after all, to stop short of the point at which their knowledge could be of appreciable practical use to them, and that the explanation of any of the phenomena exhibited by rotating or oscillating rigid bodies, so interesting and obviously important, was still beyond their reach.The aim of this little book is to help such students to make the most of what they have already learnt, and to carry their instruction to the point of practical utility.
1. A body is any substance of which we can gain a knowledge by our senses. Hence air, water, and earth, in all their modifications, are called bodies.2. There are certain properties which are common to all bodies. These are called the essential properties of bodies. They are Impenetrability, Extension, Figure, Divisibility, Inertia, and Attraction.3. Impenetrability. - By impenetrability, it is meant that two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time, or, that the ultimate particles of matter cannot be penetrated. Thus, if a vessel be exactly filled with water, and a stone, or any other substance heavier than water, be dropped into it, a quantity of water will overflow, just equal to the size of the heavy body. This shows that the stone only separates or displaces the particles of water, and therefore that the two substances cannot exist in the same place at the same time. If a glass tube open at the bottom, and closed with the thumb at the top, be pressed down into a vessel of water, the liquid will not rise up and fill the tube, because the air already in the tube resists it; but if the thumb be removed, so that the air can pass out, the water will instantly rise as high on the inside of the tube as it is on the outside. This shows that the air is impenetrable to the water.4. If a nail be driven into a board, in common language, it is said to penetrate the wood, but in the language of philosophy it only separates, or displaces the particles of the wood.
The necessity of reprinting the Author's Natural Philosophy, has given him an opportunity of reviewing and correcting the whole, and of making many changes, which could not have been done on stereotype plates. In addition to these corrections, he has added about forty pages of letterpress, and more than twenty new cuts, chiefly on the subjects of the Steam Engine and Electro Magnetism. Both these subjects the Author has taken great pains to explain and illustrate, in such a manner as to make them understood by the' pupil. The mechanical principles on which this engine acts, it will be allowed, have been comprehend ed only by a very few'; while the subject of electro magnetism has become exceedingly interesting, on account of recent attempts to make its force a motive power. The whole work has been newly stereotyped; and on all accounts, therefore, it is believed, will be much more acceptable to the public than formerly.
Treatise on Geophysics: Crust and Lithosphere Dynamics, Volume 6, provides a comprehensive review of the state of knowledge on crust and lithosphere dynamics, which is defined as the study of how the outermost layers of the Earth respond to loads that are emplaced on, within, and below it and its implications for plate mechanics and mantle flow. The book begins with a chapter on plate kinematics, which shows how new observations and methodologies have improved the resolution of relative and absolute plate motions. This is followed by studies of plate mechanics, focusing on the long-term rheology of the plates and response of the plates to both relatively short-term and long-term loads. The book also includes chapters that examine the evidence from surface heat flow, borehole breakouts, and magma models for the thermal and mechanical structure of the lithosphere; the deformation of the lithosphere in extensional and compressional settings. The final two chapters deal with the structural styles of faulting in the shallow brittle part of the lithosphere, the brittle-ductile transition, and the shear zone in the ductile part of the lithosphere; and how developments in plate mechanics have impacted our understanding of geological processes.Self-contained volume starts with an overview of the subject then explores each topic with in depth detailExtensive reference lists and cross references with other volumes to facilitate further researchFull-color figures and tables support the text and aid in understandingContent suited for both the expert and non-expert
Treatise on Geophysics: Geomagnetism, Volume 5, provides an overview of the most important aspects of geomagnetism. The book begins by tracing the history of the study of geomagnetism. It then reviews global models of the Earth's magnetic field; the main sources of external magnetic field contributions; and the instruments and practices used to observe and measure the full range of features of the geomagnetic field. It discusses the origins of current knowledge of the secular variation of the Earth's magnetic field; crustal magnetism; geomagnetic excursions; the study of geophysical electromagnetic induction; the magnetization process; and the status of recent magnetic field data and their applications. The remaining chapters cover the geometry of the geomagnetic field and its temporal variability as recorded in volcanic and sedimentary rocks over the past few million years; the ocean crust as a recorder of geomagnetic field variations; and the theoretical basis for paleointensity experiments in igneous and sedimentary environments. The final chapter explains the concept of true polar wander (TPW), defined as shifts in the geographic location of Earth's daily rotation axis and/or by fluctuations in the spin rate (length of day anomalies).Self-contained volume starts with an overview of the subject then explores each topic with in depth detailExtensive reference lists and cross references with other volumes to facilitate further researchFull-color figures and tables support the text and aid in understandingContent suited for both the expert and non-expert
Treatise on Geophysics: Mantle Dynamics, Volume 7 aims to provide both a classical and state-of-the-art introduction to the methods and science of mantle dynamics, as well as survey leading order problems (both solved and unsolved) and current understanding of how the mantle works. It is organized around two themes: (1) how is mantle convection studied; and (2) what do we understand about mantle dynamics to date. The first four chapters are thus concerned with pedagogical reviews of the physics of mantle convection; laboratory studies of the fluid dynamics of convection relevant to the mantle; theoretical analysis of mantle dynamics; and numerical analysis and methods of mantle convection. The subsequent chapters concentrate on leading issues of mantle convection itself, which include the energy budget of the mantle; the upper mantle and lithosphere in and near the spreading center (mid-ocean ridge) environment; the dynamics of subducting slabs; hot spots, melting anomalies, and mantle plumes; and finally, geochemical mantle dynamics and mixing.Self-contained volume starts with an overview of the subject then explores each topic in detailExtensive reference lists and cross references with other volumes to facilitate further researchFull-color figures and tables support the text and aid in understandingContent suited for both the expert and non-expert
Treaties on Geophysics: Core Dynamics, Volume 8, provides a comprehensive review of the current state of understanding of core dynamics. The book begins by analyzing a subject of long-standing and on-going controversy: the gross energetics of the core. It then explains the important elements of dynamo theory; actual fluid motions in the core; the basic physical principles involved in thermochemical convection in the core and the basic equations governing the convection; and turbulence and the small-scale dynamics of the core. This is followed by discussions of the state of knowledge on rotation-induced core flows; the use of first-principles numerical models of self-sustaining fluid dynamos; and the behavior of polarity reversals in numerical dynamo models. The remaining chapters cover the various roles the inner core plays in core dynamics and the geodynamo; experiments that have shaped knowledge about the flows in the core that produce the geodynamo and govern its evolution; and ways the mantle can affect core dynamics, and corresponding ways the core can affect the mantle.Self-contained volume starts with an overview of the subject then explores each topic with in depth detail Extensive reference lists and cross references with other volumes to facilitate further research Full-color figures and tables support the text and aid in understanding Content suited for both the expert and non-expert
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