Glass Ceramic Technology

GLASS-CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY, 2nd ed., by W. Holand and G.H. Beall is a 414-page book printed on bright white paper. Almost every page has a line drawing showing polymers or figures showing phase diagrams. The figures show, e.g., volume vs. temperature, crystal growth vs. temperature, crystal growth vs. time, viscosity vs. temperature, and so on. Photographs include beta-quartz solution (page 56), electron microscope photo (EM) of SiO2-Al2)3-Li2O-TiO2 glass (page 61), EM photos of other types of glass (pages 62, 63), scanning EM photo of leucite (pages 68, 69), photos of dentrites and sperulites (pages 71, 73), X-ray diffraction, lithium disilicate crystal agglomerates (page 85), crack propagation in lithium disilicate (page 88), and so on. The book also contains an 8-page section of glossy color photographs showing teeth. The teeth are made of lithium disilicate glass-ceramic, fluoroapatite glass-ceramic, leucite glass-ceramic, opal glass-ceramic, and leucite-apatite glass-ceramic. The book has four chapters: (1) PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING GLASS-CERAMIC FORMATON; (2) COMPOSITION SYSTEMS FOR GLASS-CERAMICS; (3) MICROSTRUCTURE CONTROL; (4) APPLICATIONS OF GLASS-CERAMICS. The book defines "glass-ceramics" in terms of method of manufacture, namely, "controlled nucleation and crystallization," and in terms of physical appearance, that is, "fine, randomly oriented grains" (page xvii). We read that ceramics was invented by S.D. Stookey who was making lithium silicate containing precipitated silver, where the heated materials at just above their glass transition temperature (450 degrees C) and exposed them to UV light, but once by accident heated at 850 degrees, which resulted in the creation of ceramics. (Ta-daaaaah!) Stookey remembered that "thermometer opals" contain titania, and so he decided to add titania as a nucleating agent, which promptly led to the invention of CORNING WARE. The drawing on the page shows glass crystals made with or without nucleation. We learn of the various properties of glass-ceramics, e.g., zero shrinkage with temperature change, transparency, opacity, resorbability in chemicals, durability in chemicals, flexure strength (measured in units of Pascals), electrical insulation, electrical conductivity. We learn that there are six classes of glass-ceramics: (1) neosilicates, (2) sorosilicates, (3) cyclosilicates, (4) inosilicates, (5) phyllosilicates, and (6) tectosilicates. The book discloses how these differ in terms of ratios of silicon, oxygen, and aluminum. In CHAPTER TWO, pages 75-90 concern lithium disilicate. This has one Si atom with two oxygen atoms, and two lithium atoms with one oxygen atom. We learn that Stookey discovered that one type of lithium disilicate, LITHIUM METASILICATE, has the property of being dissolvable in HF, resulting in the ability to be etched to form patterns. This compound can also be shaped by UV light to form precision parts, called Fotoceram (CORNING GLASS). LITHIUM METASILICATE is made by adding cerium 3+ and silver 1+, and exposing to UV light to form cerium 4+ and silver (uncharged). With heating, the neutral silver forms particles of 8 nanometers wide, which serve as nucleation sites for crystallization. The crystals grow dendtritically. We also learn that LITHIUM DISILICATE has a high resistance, and thus is used in electrical engineering, and that it has high flexural strength. We learn that the unit of flexural strength is the Pascal, and that the flexural strength of LITHIUM DISILICATE can be 100-300 megaPascals (page 79). But later on, we learn about a type of LITHIUM DISILICATE containing aluminum and potassium with flexure strength of 450-740 megaPascals, which results in a glass-ceramic that can be machined. Here is another excerpt from this book. Pages 185-187 concern BASALT. BASALT is renowned for its formation of amazing geological formations consisting of hexagonal columns. These occur at Devil's Causeway in Ireland, Devil's Postpile in California, Devil's Tower in Wyoming, and Boiling Pots in Hilo, Hawaii. Anyway, in this book, we learn that BASALT is SiO2-Al2O3-Fe2O3. The book tells us that basalt usually includes calcium oxide and magnesium oxide. We learn that if Fe2O3/FeO at a ratio about ½ is used, the resulting product is a fine-grained glass-ceramic. We learn that an especially fine-grained size can be achieved by including an oxidizing agent, e.g., ammonium nitrate, during crystallization. Although the book fails to disclose the advantage of fine grain size, we do learn that BASALT is noted for its easy processing by pressing and centrifugal casting, and that BASALT is used for roofing tile and liners for steel pipe. I wanted to confirm some of these statements in the book, so I found the following information from CBP Engineering (Washington, PA): "Basalt is a neovolcanic eruptive rock which melts at approximately 1250°C, and can be cast in a similar way to cast iron. Basalt gravel of special chemical and mineralogical structure is melted in a furnace similar to an open hearth furnace. The molten magma flows through a homogenizing drum and is cast by means of casting ladles - like cast iron - into sand molds or chill molds (static cast) or in rotating chill molds (dynamic or centrifugal casting)." Okay, now I am satisfied, since CBP Engineering states that basalt is formed by casting.

Let me preface this review by saying that I am a metallurgist/materials scientist. As such, I am very familiar with the general materials science given in the book, but less so with the specifics regarding ceramic compositions, ceramic phase diagrams and alike. I mention this because this book was written for a specialist audience rather than a general one. That is not to say that people without the requisite background would get nothing from the book. I found the book to be very well written, clear and very accessible if you have a background in materials science, or inorganic and physical chemistry. Engineers and those involved with product development will find this book to be of great value even if they lack all of the prerequisites to understand all of the material without further study. I heartily recommend this book as a text and to materials scientists, engineers and others involved with materials research, product development and materials selection. What is in the book -- The book is divided into a brief historical introduction and four lengthy chapters, each of which is divided into sub-sections. This history and these chapters cover: 1. History - I found this 3.5 page section to be very helpful as it put the material covered in the book into the perspective of the materials science that I was very familiar with. This section describes glass-ceramics as materials that consist of crystalline material in an amorphous glass matrix, which can be produced by the precipitation of crystalline material from the glass phase or the sintering of powdered glass. The amount of each material, their composition morphology and resulting properties are the subject of the rest of the book. 2. Crystalline Structures and Mineral Properties - This 72 page chapter is divided into sub-sections describing crystal structures, their nucleation and their growth from the parent glass. 3. Composition Systems for Glass-Ceramics - This is an even longer chapter (135 pages), which discusses individual types of glass ceramics, including those based on Silicates, Phosphates and Oxides. 4. Microstructure Control - This chapter describes the different types of structures that can be formed and how processing influences their development. 5. Applications of Glass-Ceramics - This is perhaps the most important chapter for a non-materials oriented audience. It details the myriad of applications of glass-ceramics; including cookware, rocket nosecones, optical instruments, electrical packaging (chip carriers), lasers, and medical applications (including biologically active materials that allow for attachment to cells and non-active materials when inert materials are required). There is a lengthy sub-section on dental applications that includes color photographs showing glass-ceramic teeth. 6. Appendix, References and Index - The book includes a lengthy appendix that shows three-dimensional representations of crystal structures, 29 pages of references and an index.

This text gives a comprehensive overview of glass ceramic composites; up to date for 2012. The first chapter introduces the subject, including the thermodynamics and kinetics of nucleation and crystal growth. Several models are given for nucleation processes. Some of the discussion on crystal growth is the traditional phenomenological, accompanied by nice black and white photos of microcrystals. Later chapters delve into the often complex and sometimes variable compositions of many glasses. Triangular phase diagrams help illustrate the continuua of composites possible between the simple vertices of the triangles. Some of the phase diagrams also show trajectories that describe immiscibility of one mixture in another. Another useful feature of the text is the detailed steps often supplied for synthesising a given composite. Enough information is given to be useful to a professional in this field. Chapter 4 focuses on applications. Perhaps the most important is for the substrates of magnetic memory disks. Thus ceramics literally underpin the computer age. There are a few colour plates. Mostly of false ceramic teeth embedded in jaws! I am not sure why the authors did not furnish plates of other non-dental applications. For example, images of computer disks might have been added. The book is well suited as a reference of all the major composites. You do not necessarily need to read it cover to cover.

GLASS-CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY, 2nd ed., by W. Holand and G.H. Beall is a 414-page book printed on bright white paper. Almost every page has a line drawing showing polymers or figures showing phase diagrams. The figures show, e.g., volume vs. temperature, crystal growth vs. temperature, crystal growth vs. time, viscosity vs. temperature, and so on.Photographs include beta-quartz solution (page 56), electron microscope photo (EM) of SiO2-Al2)3-Li2O-TiO2 glass (page 61), EM photos of other types of glass (pages 62, 63), scanning EM photo of leucite (pages 68, 69), photos of dentrites and sperulites (pages 71, 73), X-ray diffraction, lithium disilicate crystal agglomerates (page 85), crack propagation in lithium disilicate (page 88), and so on. The book also contains an 8-page section of glossy color photographs showing teeth. The teeth are made of lithium disilicate glass-ceramic, fluoroapatite glass-ceramic, leucite glass-ceramic, opal glass-ceramic, and leucite-apatite glass-ceramic.The book has four chapters:(1) PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING GLASS-CERAMIC FORMATON;(2) COMPOSITION SYSTEMS FOR GLASS-CERAMICS;(3) MICROSTRUCTURE CONTROL;(4) APPLICATIONS OF GLASS-CERAMICS.The book defines "glass-ceramics" in terms of method of manufacture, namely, "controlled nucleation and crystallization," and in terms of physical appearance, that is, "fine, randomly oriented grains" (page xvii). We read that ceramics was invented by S.D. Stookey who was making lithium silicate containing precipitated silver, where the heated materials at just above their glass transition temperature (450 degrees C) and exposed them to UV light, but once by accident heated at 850 degrees, which resulted in the creation of ceramics. (Ta-daaaaah!) Stookey remembered that "thermometer opals" contain titania, and so he decided to add titania as a nucleating agent, which promptly led to the invention of CORNING WARE. The drawing on the page shows glass crystals made with or without nucleation.We learn of the various properties of glass-ceramics, e.g., zero shrinkage with temperature change, transparency, opacity, resorbability in chemicals, durability in chemicals, flexure strength (measured in units of Pascals), electrical insulation, electrical conductivity. We learn that there are six classes of glass-ceramics: (1) neosilicates, (2) sorosilicates, (3) cyclosilicates, (4) inosilicates, (5) phyllosilicates, and (6) tectosilicates. The book discloses how these differ in terms of ratios of silicon, oxygen, and aluminum.In CHAPTER TWO, pages 75-90 concern lithium disilicate. This has one Si atom with two oxygen atoms, and two lithium atoms with one oxygen atom. We learn that Stookey discovered that one type of lithium disilicate, LITHIUM METASILICATE, has the property of being dissolvable in HF, resulting in the ability to be etched to form patterns. This compound can also be shaped by UV light to form precision parts, called Fotoceram (CORNING GLASS).LITHIUM METASILICATE is made by adding cerium 3+ and silver 1+, and exposing to UV light to form cerium 4+ and silver (uncharged). With heating, the neutral silver forms particles of 8 nanometers wide, which serve as nucleation sites for crystallization. The crystals grow dendtritically. We also learn that LITHIUM DISILICATE has a high resistance, and thus is used in electrical engineering, and that it has high flexural strength. We learn that the unit of flexural strength is the Pascal, and that the flexural strength of LITHIUM DISILICATE can be 100-300 megaPascals (page 79). But later on, we learn about a type of LITHIUM DISILICATE containing aluminum and potassium with flexure strength of 450-740 megaPascals, which results in a glass-ceramic that can be machined.Here is another excerpt from this book. Pages 185-187 concern BASALT. BASALT is renowned for its formation of amazing geological formations consisting of hexagonal columns. These occur at Devil's Causeway in Ireland, Devil's Postpile in California, Devil's Tower in Wyoming, and Boiling Pots in Hilo, Hawaii. Anyway, in this book, we learn that BASALT is SiO2-Al2O3-Fe2O3. The book tells us that basalt usually includes calcium oxide and magnesium oxide. We learn that if Fe2O3/FeO at a ratio about ½ is used, the resulting product is a fine-grained glass-ceramic. We learn that an especially fine-grained size can be achieved by including an oxidizing agent, e.g., ammonium nitrate, during crystallization. Although the book fails to disclose the advantage of fine grain size, we do learn that BASALT is noted for its easy processing by pressing and centrifugal casting, and that BASALT is used for roofing tile and liners for steel pipe.I wanted to confirm some of these statements in the book, so I found the following information from CBP Engineering (Washington, PA): "Basalt is a neovolcanic eruptive rock which melts at approximately 1250°C, and can be cast in a similar way to cast iron. Basalt gravel of special chemical and mineralogical structure is melted in a furnace similar to an open hearth furnace. The molten magma flows through a homogenizing drum and is cast by means of casting ladles - like cast iron - into sand molds or chill molds (static cast) or in rotating chill molds (dynamic or centrifugal casting)." Okay, now I am satisfied, since CBP Engineering states that basalt is formed by casting.

Let me preface this review by saying that I am a metallurgist/materials scientist. As such, I am very familiar with the general materials science given in the book, but less so with the specifics regarding ceramic compositions, ceramic phase diagrams and alike. I mention this because this book was written for a specialist audience rather than a general one. That is not to say that people without the requisite background would get nothing from the book. I found the book to be very well written, clear and very accessible if you have a background in materials science, or inorganic and physical chemistry. Engineers and those involved with product development will find this book to be of great value even if they lack all of the prerequisites to understand all of the material without further study. I heartily recommend this book as a text and to materials scientists, engineers and others involved with materials research, product development and materials selection.What is in the book --The book is divided into a brief historical introduction and four lengthy chapters, each of which is divided into sub-sections. This history and these chapters cover:1. History - I found this 3.5 page section to be very helpful as it put the material covered in the book into the perspective of the materials science that I was very familiar with. This section describes glass-ceramics as materials that consist of crystalline material in an amorphous glass matrix, which can be produced by the precipitation of crystalline material from the glass phase or the sintering of powdered glass. The amount of each material, their composition morphology and resulting properties are the subject of the rest of the book.2. Crystalline Structures and Mineral Properties - This 72 page chapter is divided into sub-sections describing crystal structures, their nucleation and their growth from the parent glass.3. Composition Systems for Glass-Ceramics - This is an even longer chapter (135 pages), which discusses individual types of glass ceramics, including those based on Silicates, Phosphates and Oxides.4. Microstructure Control - This chapter describes the different types of structures that can be formed and how processing influences their development.5. Applications of Glass-Ceramics - This is perhaps the most important chapter for a non-materials oriented audience. It details the myriad of applications of glass-ceramics; including cookware, rocket nosecones, optical instruments, electrical packaging (chip carriers), lasers, and medical applications (including biologically active materials that allow for attachment to cells and non-active materials when inert materials are required). There is a lengthy sub-section on dental applications that includes color photographs showing glass-ceramic teeth.6. Appendix, References and Index - The book includes a lengthy appendix that shows three-dimensional representations of crystal structures, 29 pages of references and an index.

This text gives a comprehensive overview of glass ceramic composites; up to date for 2012. The first chapter introduces the subject, including the thermodynamics and kinetics of nucleation and crystal growth. Several models are given for nucleation processes. Some of the discussion on crystal growth is the traditional phenomenological, accompanied by nice black and white photos of microcrystals.Later chapters delve into the often complex and sometimes variable compositions of many glasses. Triangular phase diagrams help illustrate the continuua of composites possible between the simple vertices of the triangles. Some of the phase diagrams also show trajectories that describe immiscibility of one mixture in another.Another useful feature of the text is the detailed steps often supplied for synthesising a given composite. Enough information is given to be useful to a professional in this field.Chapter 4 focuses on applications. Perhaps the most important is for the substrates of magnetic memory disks. Thus ceramics literally underpin the computer age.There are a few colour plates. Mostly of false ceramic teeth embedded in jaws! I am not sure why the authors did not furnish plates of other non-dental applications. For example, images of computer disks might have been added.The book is well suited as a reference of all the major composites. You do not necessarily need to read it cover to cover.